ABSTRACT
This study examined the relationship among school-based management (SBM) practices, school culture, and school effectiveness in public basic educational institutions, with the aim of determining how these three institutional components interact to support improved educational outcomes. Guided by a descriptive–correlational design, the research involved school heads and teachers who were selected through stratified sampling to ensure adequate representation of the target population. Data were gathered using a structured survey questionnaire composed of validated subscales measuring SBM domains, dimensions of school culture, and indicators of school effectiveness. The instrument underwent reliability testing, which yielded acceptable internal consistency coefficients for all constructs. Data collection followed standard ethical procedures, including the securing of approvals, voluntary participation, and confidentiality safeguards. Descriptive statistics were used to assess the level of SBM implementation, prevailing school culture, and degree of school effectiveness, while Pearson correlation and regression analyses determined the relationships among the variables. Findings revealed generally high levels of SBM implementation and positive school culture, both of which were significantly associated with greater school effectiveness. Moreover, the results highlighted specific areas in SBM and school culture that require targeted improvement to further strengthen institutional performance. Based on the findings, a School Improvement Plan was developed to enhance management practices, reinforce collaborative culture, and sustain effective school operations.
INTRODUCTION
Schools, as the fundamental institutions responsible for shaping learners’ intellectual, social, and moral development, function within complex systems of governance, culture, and organizational structures that influence their overall effectiveness. Across education systems, the quality of learning outcomes has long been recognized as a product of the school’s internal environment—its leadership, values, practices, relationships, management systems, and shared norms—which collectively determine how well a school can fulfill its mandate (Cheng, 2022). Contemporary educational research emphasizes that strong organizational conditions, particularly effective participatory management and a positive school culture, can significantly enhance institutional performance, teacher productivity, and student achievement. As education systems evolve to meet the demands of rapidly changing societies, attention has increasingly shifted toward how schools organize themselves internally to ensure that learning remains responsive, equitable, and transformative.
Globally, schools are continuously being challenged to improve their performance in response to growing pressures related to accountability, student diversity, technological advancements, and expanding expectations from communities and governments. International assessments such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) continue to highlight wide disparities in learning outcomes among countries, pointing to the need for stronger school systems (Thomaidou Pavlidou & Efstathiades, 2021). These assessments reveal that high-performing schools tend to operate under decentralized, participatory, and transparent management systems, where stakeholders play well-defined roles in decision-making. The increasing focus on decentralization reforms in education systems around the world demonstrates the recognition that centralized models often fail to address the unique needs of individual schools, prompting many countries to adopt forms of school-based management. Nations such as Singapore, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom have long institutionalized school autonomy to strengthen accountability, enhance decision-making, and empower school leaders and communities to improve learning environments.
Another global trend influencing school improvement efforts is the heightened emphasis on cultivating strong school cultures as a foundation for sustainable educational reform. International scholarship consistently shows that schools with clearly articulated values, collaborative norms, supportive interpersonal relationships, and shared visions tend to outperform those lacking such characteristics (Parveen et al., 2024). These patterns demonstrate that organizational culture is not merely an abstract concept but a tangible determinant of school effectiveness. The rise of frameworks such as the OECD’s “Schooling Redesigned” and UNESCO’s “Futures of Education” further emphasizes the importance of culture-building, leadership development, collaborative professionalism, and community engagement in shaping the future of schooling worldwide.
At the same time, global education systems are confronting unprecedented challenges that complicate the pursuit of improved school effectiveness. These include rapid technological integration, learning losses brought about by disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic, widening inequities among socio-economic groups, and persistent shortages of qualified teachers in many regions. In response, reform initiatives increasingly center on empowering schools to become adaptive learning organizations capable of innovation, data-informed decision-making, and sustained collaboration among stakeholders (Alam, 2022). More than ever, schools are expected not only to deliver instruction but also to build cohesive cultures that promote well-being, safety, inclusivity, and continuous improvement.
In many countries, governments have strengthened policy initiatives that expand school autonomy and promote shared leadership as mechanisms for improving educational outcomes. For example, Australia’s Independent Public Schools initiative and Canada’s move toward district-level empowerment demonstrate pathways for decentralizing authority to school communities (Alessa, 2021). Similarly, the United States continues to endorse school-based management in urban school districts through models that encourage site-based councils composed of principals, teachers, parents, and community stakeholders. These international directions consistently affirm that effective school systems require strong alignment between governance structures, school culture, and operational effectiveness (Tohri et al., 2022).
Within the Philippines, school governance has undergone significant transformations in the last two decades through systematic reforms led by the Department of Education. A major milestone was the implementation of Republic Act 9155, or the “Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001,” which established the legal framework for decentralizing decision-making and empowering school heads to manage their respective institutions (Ivan & Joana, 2023). This law provided the foundation for the development of School-Based Management (SBM) as a core governance approach, later reinforced through the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA) outlined in DepEd Order No. 37, s. 2009. BESRA emphasized strengthening school capabilities, enhancing stakeholder participation, and improving accountability systems to raise the quality of basic education. Subsequent policies, including DepEd Order No. 44, s. 2015 and DepEd Order No. 83, s. 2012 (K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum), continued to underscore the importance of empowering schools and fostering environments conducive to effective learning (Barrot, 2021).
The Philippine education system’s ongoing struggle with learning outcomes is consistently highlighted in national and international assessments. The country’s results in the 2018 and 2022 PISA cycles placed Filipino learners significantly below the OECD average in reading, mathematics, and science, signaling urgent concerns about school quality and systemic effectiveness (Recibe, 2024). National Achievement Test (NAT) data across several years similarly reveal fluctuating and often declining performance in key subject areas. These trends have intensified government efforts to strengthen school leadership, improve internal processes, reinforce school culture, and enhance instructional effectiveness. The MATATAG Agenda launched in 2023 further outlines DepEd’s commitment to addressing foundational learning gaps, providing better support for teachers, and creating environments that promote learner well-being and school accountability.
Central to these policy directions is the recognition that school culture plays an equally vital role in improving school performance. DepEd memos such as the Child Protection Policy (DepEd Order No. 40, s. 2012), the WinS Program (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Schools), the Gulayan sa Paaralan Program, and School-Based Feeding Program reinforce the importance of supportive, safe, and nurturing school environments (Francisco & Caingcoy, 2022). These policies align with the broader goal of cultivating school cultures that promote respect, collaboration, inclusivity, and learner-centered practices. Strong school cultures have been linked to better academic results, improved teacher morale, and increased stakeholder engagement—a relationship widely acknowledged by both local and international studies.
School effectiveness, meanwhile, remains a focal concern as schools strive to meet performance indicators set by DepEd and various accountability mechanisms. Tools such as the School-Based Management Validation Tool, School Report Card, Results-Based Performance Management System (RPMS), and School Improvement Plan (SIP) collectively shape how schools track their effectiveness across governance, instruction, resource management, and learner outcomes (Barrias et al., 2024). These mechanisms aim to create a coherent system of monitoring that supports schools in identifying strengths, addressing gaps, and implementing evidence-based interventions that enhance overall institutional performance.
Within local school divisions, various initiatives and programs have been introduced to strengthen leadership capacity and improve organizational culture. Divisions and districts frequently conduct SBM trainings, Learning Action Cell (LAC) sessions, instructional leadership workshops, and school improvement planning activities to ensure that schools remain responsive to community needs and DepEd priorities. Local governance programs also emphasize the importance of community partnerships, transparency, and shared responsibility in improving school outcomes. These local initiatives reveal that while national policies provide a comprehensive framework, the actual success of reforms often depends on how effectively they are implemented and internalized at the school level (Kevin et al., 2025).
Despite continued efforts to strengthen school governance, culture, and performance, significant variations persist across schools in terms of SBM implementation, organizational climate, and effectiveness indicators. Many schools report challenges such as limited stakeholder participation, inconsistent organizational practices, resource constraints, and difficulties meeting performance targets. Research on SBM, school culture, and school effectiveness in the Philippines remains limited in scope, with most studies either focusing on isolated variables or specific regions. Few studies examine these three components simultaneously, and even fewer explore how they interact to influence school outcomes in particular communities. This gap underscores the need to investigate how SBM practices shape school culture and how, in turn, these two variables influence school effectiveness in specific local contexts. Addressing this research gap is crucial in developing targeted and evidence-based interventions that will support schools in strengthening governance structures, building positive organizational cultures, and enhancing their overall effectiveness in delivering quality education.
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